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  "retrievedAt": "2026-08-24T19:49:11.031Z",
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    "text": "Classical political economy drew the production boundary materially: productive labour created, or was necessary to create, material wealth or vendible commodities."
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      "text": "The study traces this boundary in 43 college-level introductory economics textbooks from 1890 to 1960 using qualitative analysis and numerical coding of production-boundary frames.",
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      "text": "Most nineteenth-century classical political economists accepted Smith’s account, while disputing whether auxiliary services such as transportation and trade contributed sufficiently to material production to count as productive.",
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      "text": "MacVane included services such as merchants, bankers, bookkeepers, inventors, and managers when they were necessary to carry on material production effectively, but excluded physicians, teachers, legislators, and civil servants when their work was not required for material commodities to be supplied.",
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